Development of detectors, based on inorganic scintillators,
for basic research and applications.

The CRYSTAL CLEAR PROJECT

1st September 1999

Annecy LAPP, France; M. Schneegans, J.P. Vialle

Brussels IIHE VUB-ULB, Belgium; P. Bruyndonckx, R. Chen, A. Fremout, F. Tallouf, S. Tavernier (spokesman)

CERN, Geneva, Switzerland; E. Auffray, M. Lebeau, P. Lecoq , J.M. Le Goff

Copernicus Univ., Torun, Poland; A. Wojtowicz

Delft Techn. Univ., The Netherlands; P. Dorenbos, C. van Eijk

Geneva Univ Hospital & Université de Lausanne, Switzerland; D. Clement, J.F. Loude, C. Morel (deputy spokesman)

Giesen Univ, Germany; R. Novotny, A. Hofstaeter

Grenoble Univ., France; J.F. Cavaignac

Lyon I , LPCML, France; A. Belsky, C. Dujardin, J.C. Gacon, B. Moine, C. Pedrini

Lyon I, IPNL, Lyon, France; P. Depasse, S. Gascon-Shotkin, M. Goyot, B. Ille, J.P. Walder, F. Zach

Milan Univ., INFM, Italy; A. Vedda

Minsk INP, Belarus; M. Korzhik, A. Fedorov

Moscow State Univ., Russia; V. Mikhailin, I. Kamenskikh, A. Vasil’ev, I. Shpinkov

Muenchen MRI, Germany; E. Lorenz, B. Pichler, S. Ziegler

Pisa Univ., Italy, C. Damiani, A. Del Guerra

Prague CAS, Praha, Czech Republik; J.A. Mares, E. Mihokova, M. Nikl, K. Polak, J. Rosa

Rome INFN, Italy; F. Denotaristefani

Saclay DAPNIA, France; R. Chipaux, Ph. Rebourgeard

Valencia Univ, Spain; J. Benlloch

At the beginning of this century, Crookes invented a device for counting alpha particles. It was based on the property of zinc sulphide to emit tiny pulses of visible light when hit by an ionising particle. The instrument played an essential role in the discovery by Rutherford in 1910 that atoms are composed of a nucleus surrounded by a cloud of electrons.

This phenomenon of light emission is now called scintillation or phosphorescence, and many other and better scintillating materials or phosphors have been discovered since. Such materials are used in high energy and nuclear physics, in astrophysics, in medical imaging, in non destructive testing, in security devices, in geological surveys, and have a number of other industrial uses.

In 1990 the CRYSTAL CLEAR collaboration was set up, and registered as RD-18 by the CERN DRDC committee. The main aim of this project was to develop scintillating materials which would be suitable for use at the LHC collider. Indeed, none of the existing scintillators at that time had the appropriate characteristics for use in the extremely demanding LHC application.

To achieve this goal, the CRYSTAL CLEAR collaboration set-up an interdisciplinary network involving world experts in different aspects of material science (crystallography, solid state physics, luminescence, defects in solids) and experts in instrumentation for the detection of high energy photons and electrons.

The CRYSTAL CLEAR collaboration has been quite successful. On the basis of our studies, the CMS collaboration decided in 1994 to choose a detector based on the use of PbWO₄ scintillator for the electromagnetic calorimeter. But the CRYSTAL CLEAR collaboration at the same time succeeded to create and motivate a community of scientists to develop a new field of applied research on the physics of scintillation processes in solids. This attracted scientists and engineers from other areas making use of scintillating materials, resulting in a total community of about 250 scientists world wide.

The CRYSTAL CLEAR collaboration has been the driving force behind this community. We have organised every two years an international conference on "Scintillators and their applications", where material scientists, users of scintillating materials and crystallographic industry discuss about the evolution of the needs, and define the research and development lines for the future. At the first conference of this cycle, CRYSTAL 2000 in Chamonix in 1992, Lead Tungstate (PWO, now chosen by CMS and ALICE for their electromagnetic calorimeters) and Lutetium Orthosilicate (LSO, now patented by Schlumberger for a new generation of PET scanners under development) have been introduced for the first time.

Among the achievements of CRYSTAL CLEAR we should mention:

• We have reached a thorough understanding of the different mechanisms underlying the scintillation and radiation damage processes in Lead Tungstate crystals and helped the producers in Russia and China to develop the mass production at an unprecedented scale and quality level, required by the LHC working constraints.
• We have established Cerium Fluoride (CeF₃) as a dense, fast, high light yield and radiation hard scintillator, suitable for High Energy Physics experiments, and worked with industry (Optovac (USA), SIC and BGRI(China), Crytur (Czech Republic)) to develop its production at an industrial scale. At the same time it has greatly contributed to our understanding of cerium emission based scintillators.
• We have developed, in collaboration with the French company "Le Verre Fluoré", a new family of heavy scintillating fluoride glasses, offering excellent perspectives for a new generation of "affordable" calorimeters and Cerenkov detectors.
• We have worked in collaboration with the Czech company CRYTUR on the development of high quality Yttrium Aluminate Perovskite crystals (YAP). These crystals have a moderate density (5.36 g/cc), but give two times more light than BGO, with a broad emission band centred around 370 nm, and a scintillation decay time of 30 ns. This scintillator is now extensively used in several types of medical probes and as screens in electronic microscopes. A special highly segmented YAP matrix has been built by Italian groups for a high resolution mammographic camera[2], and a high resolution PET camera for small animal imaging[3], and YAP plates are being considered for high resolution ISPA tubes, also used for medical applications[1].

• We have identified and pioneered LuAP (LuAlO₃:Ce) as a very promising new scintillator with a decay time of only 18 ns and a light yield which could possibily be 50% of NaI.

We are strongly convinced that CRYSTAL CLEAR should continue. The vast amount of expertise in the development and use of scintillators (and their readout) which was built up in Europe over the last ten years should be successfully put to work for the benefit of future high energy physics experiments and many other areas that make use of scintillating materials. We will not only continue our generic research on scintillator materials and scintillation mechanism but we will also concentrate more specifically on the three following applications; detectors for High Energy Physics (fast, high density oxides and fluorides), Positron Emission Tomography (Cerium doped rare earth oxides) and the solar neutrino detection (Gadolinium based oxides).

In many applications, the scintillating materials are used to detect low energy gamma-rays in the range 100 keV to 1 MeV. This is the case in nuclear medicine, in most industrial uses of scintillators, and often also in gamma-ray astrophysics. Because of the low energy of the gamma-rays, a high light yield scintillator is mandatory in such applications. There is also a need for faster scintillators. Traditional high light yield scintillators have a decay time of several 100 ns, which is slow compared to the possibilities of modern electronics. For example, Bi₄(GeO₄)₃ (BGO), which is one of the commonly used heavy scintillators today, has a decay time of 300 ns.

The CRYSTAL CLEAR collaboration has contributed considerably, to the study of all these mechanisms. Our synchrotron radiation studies have allowed, for instance, to reconstruct over a wide energy range, the different schemes of energy relaxation in wide band gap scintillators, and to measure the efficiency of energy transfer to activators like Cerium in several hosts. In the ground state, the "4f" level of the Ce³⁺ ion is occupied by one electron, and this level usually lies in the lower energy region of the forbidden band gap. The empty "5d" level is 3.4 eV above the "4f" level. In rare earth oxides, the "4f" level is often situated about one eV above the top of the valence band, making hole capture by this centre a likely process. The energy transfer from electron-hole pairs to Ce³⁺ ions can, in this case, be described as a hole capture by Ce³⁺, followed by electron capture of the Ce⁴⁺ giving rise to an excited Ce³⁺ ion with one electron in the excited "5d" level. This electron will return to the ground state with emission of a scintillation photon.

Similar considerations hold for praseodymium and neodymium. But the energy gap increases as one goes from cerium to neodymium, and the emission of cerium is around 400 nm, praseodymium around 300 nm and neodymium around 200 nm. Praseodymium and neodymium luminescence centres can only be used in larger band gap materials, and the emission is too much towards the UV for most photosensors.

On the basis of our theoretical understanding of the scintillation mechanism, we hence predict that rare earth oxides doped with cerium is a promising class of materials to find new, dense, fast and large light yield scintillators. Several interesting scintillators belonging to this general class of materials have been discovered in recent years. YAlO₃:Ce (YAP) and Lu₂SiO₅:Ce (LSO) have already been mentioned. LuAlO₃:Ce (LuAP) [ 4 ] and Gd₂SiO₅:Ce (GSO) are among the candidates presently under evaluation.

For application in high energy physics, a large light yield is not so essential, and many other crystals with very different scintillation mechanisms can be considered such as BaF₂, BGO etc..

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) is a diagnostic medical imaging technique. In this technique a patient is given a drug labelled with a positron emitting isotope. Detection of the two 511 keV gamma rays produced in the electron-positron annihilation allows the in vivo reconstruction of the three dimensional distribution of the isotope in the body. The detection of the two gamma rays in coincidence requires the use of scintillation detectors. Scintillators used in PET must be dense to optimise detection efficiency, fast to limit number of random coincidences, and have sufficient energy resolution to reject scattered coincidences. State-of-the-art commercial PET scanners are usually based on BGO detector blocks which have a good detection efficiency, but are quite slow (scintillation decay constant 300 ns). Consequently, these scanners operate at a sensitivity of about 1'000 kcps/µCi/ml with a coincidence time window of about 10 ns and a scatter fraction above 30 to 45% . Next generation PET scanners are presently being developed using LSO detector blocks integrating depth-of-interaction encoding.

LuAP is a particularly interesting scintillator material for application in PET. It is dense
(8.34 g/cm³), fast (18 ns), and has potentially a high light yield. Although a few LuAP samples of about 5 x 5 x 50 mm³ have been obtained using the Bridgman method [8], and by Czochralski (by Airtron, USA) its growth is quite difficult. However, mixing yttrium with lutetium to obtain a mixed compound can stabilise the perovskite structure of the crystal during its growth and several (Lu/Y)AP samples of 1 x 1 x 1 cm³ were obtained with various yttrium concentrations using the Czochralski method. At this stage of the development, we think that LuAP or mixed YAP/LuAP could represent in the future a new and efficient scintillator for PET which would bring very high sensitivity tomographs for diagnostic and research with lower dead-time and better rejection of random and scattered coincidences. This is the reason for having CRYSTAL CLEAR supporting and taking part actively, not only in the development of this new family of scintillators, but also in their readout using avalanche photodiodes recently developed for the LHC experiments, aiming finally at the development of a complete detector module. This module will integrate the latest developments in detection and electronic readout from high-energy physics and will include depth-of-interaction encoding.

Our work on crystal development and associated readout techniques has aroused the interest of medical groups using PET. One PET scanner developed and built by members of CRYSTAL CLEAR is presently in use in the Royal Marsden Hospital [6] . The CRYSTAL CLEAR collaboration is presently partner of the Swiss National Centre of Competence in Research (NCCR) project on "Psychiatric Neuroscience: From Basic Mechanisms to the Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders". See the letter of Prof. Magistretti in annex. In the framework of this project, the CRYSTAL CLEAR collaboration will design and build a small animal PET with improved resolution and sensitivity compared to commercial systems. This scanner will use a new scintillator material, possibly LuAP. The details of this project, and the sharing of responsibilities and funding, will be worked out in the coming months. In a later stage contact will be made with industry to produce our design on a commercial basis.

One of the possible methods for solar neutrino detection is the observation of neutrino capture (based on the charged weak current) in ¹⁷⁶Yb, ¹⁶⁰Gd or ⁸²Se. Of these three isotopes ¹⁶⁰Gd is the most promising candidate. It is a main constituent of several known inorganic scintillators. Ytterbium is a quencher for scintillation, and there is very little hope of finding efficient scintillators containing large amounts of ytterbium. For ⁸²Se, the decay time is too short (10 ns) and the energy of the gamma too small (29 eV) to make this approach feasible.

Simplified nuclear level diagram for neutrino capture by ¹⁶⁰Gd.

The neutrino detection is based on the following reaction:

The threshold for neutrino capture is 244 keV and it gives rise to an electron with energy equal to the energy of the neutrino minus the threshold energy of 244 keV, followed by a gamma of 75 keV with a decay time of 8.2 ns and a second gamma of 64 keV with a decay time of 86.5 ns. The signal from the first gamma merges with the electron signal to form a peak with an energy of at least 75 keV, followed by a gamma of 64 keV with an average time delay of 86.5 ns. This will give a highly characteristic signature for neutrino interactions.

The LENS collaboration (see annex 1) has submitted a proposal for a solar neutrino experiment based on the principle explained above. The LENS collaboration considers either the use of liquid scintillators loaded with Gadolinium or Ytterbium, or the use of a gadolinium rich scintillator. Several gadolinium rich scintillators are known, but only Gd₂SiO₅:Ce (GSO) is currently produced and used in significant quantities.

In case of gadolinium, the signal generated by the alpha decay of ¹⁵²Gd produces a signal with an amplitude which is in between the signal for neutrinos from the pp reaction and neutrinos from ⁷Be. In liquids this peak coincides with the peak caused by neutrinos from the pp reaction, making the combination Gd-liquid scintillator very unattractive.

GSO:Ce was studied at the beginning of CRYSTAL CLEAR as a candidate scintillator for use at LHC [5], but was rapidly abandoned as it appeared that it was not well suited for this application. Other groups continued to develop GSO:Ce [7] and Hitachi Chemicals is producing this material on a semi-industrial scale. Work in many laboratories around the world in the last several years shows that GSO:Ce doped with Ce has a scintillation lifetime of 30 ns, and a light yield of about 9000 photons/MeV.

GdBO₃, Gd₃BO₆, GdAl₃(BO₃)⁴, Li₆Gd(BO₃)³, cerium or praseodymium based silicates: GSO, NaGdSiO₄, cerium or praseodymium based phosphates: GdP₃O₉ and cerium or praseodymium based grenats: Gd₃Ga₅O₁₂, Gd₃Al₅O₁₂, Gd₃Sc₂Ga₃O₁₂.

We will study these materials in a search for a scintillator which is suitable for solar neutrino detection.

The development of new materials is a long and multi-expertise process. It requires a very good cooperation from the industry. Since the beginning, the CRYSTAL CLEAR Collaboration has established and maintained strong collaboration links with most of the crystal growers worldwide. Despite the natural competition between the companies on a restricted market, the necessity of having a common R&D ground was considered as an important condition to define the most promising scintillators for the future. CRYSTAL CLEAR has permanent contacts and several development programs with about 13 companies worldwide [9]. Development programs are organized between CRYSTAL CLEAR and one or several firms and research laboratories of the collaboration, to study specific problems related to the development, the improvement and the production of new scintillators. In some cases, this coordination is organized at the national level, like in the Czech Republik with the company CRYTUR. In other cases, we organize an international cooperation in the frame of European or even larger programs. In particular, we are developing programs with the International Science and Technology Center (ISTC), in order to redirect the military complex of former Soviet Union crystallographic industry towards medical imaging activities. The role of CRYSTAL CLEAR is to coordinate these activities, to identify the expertise and the complementarity of the different partners, and to avoid a too strong competition at the R&D stage.

The very positive and sometimes even enthusiastic reaction of industry is motivated by the analysis of the conditions to be met for an opening of the scintillator market in the next decade. There is a general consensus that this market will be dominated by the medical PET scanners and some industrial applications like luggage scanning machines for the airport safety, provided dense, fast and reasonably cheap scintillators (typically ≤ 3 US$ / cm³) can be developed. Under this price threshold, the market could be as high as 1 billion US$ over the next 10 years for these two domains alone. It is interesting to notice that these requirements (including the price) are similar to the requirements for scientific use in High Energy Physics, Nuclear Physics and Space Research. The only additional constraint is then the radiation hardness which also motivates industry for possible other applications like high power lasers and radiation monitors for the control and the dismantling of many civilian and military nuclear plants in the world. Under these conditions, the program of the CRYSTAL CLEAR collaboration, through its generic aspect, is generally considered to offer a unique opportunity to co-ordinate the research activity in this field. In order to better analyse the needs for the different activities, the technical problems to be solved and the industrial potential, the collaboration will continue to organise every 2 years an International Conference on Scintillators and their applications, which is widely attended by representatives of crystallographic and medical imaging industry world-wide.

It is to be noticed that the support given so far to CRYSTAL CLEAR by the CERN management and the different funding agencies is taken as a sign of the motivation of the High Energy Physics community to see clear R&D lines defined in an organised way and is sufficient to convince our industrial partners to contribute to a major part of the R&D costs.

§6 Requests

The request to CERN can be divided in 3 parts:

1. Support the CERN contribution to the collaboration. This is the most important request. It took several years to set-up an active pluridisciplinary community, working in strong interaction with industry. An official statement from the CERN management that the scientific program of the CRYSTAL CLEAR collaboration is recognised as important for High Energy Physics and spin-off activities, will be extremely important to maintain the momentum in this field. A negative position would, on the contrary, ruin all the efforts of the last 10 years.
1. Support the CERN group for the procurement of raw materials and contribution to the production of scintillator samples. This will allow industry to take its share in these costs, and the other laboratories of the collaboration to give free access to their characterisation equipment and expertise.
1. Have the recognised possibility to have a fellow or to pay a project associate to be hosted by the CERN group. A minimum budget to invite experts for a few days at CERN and visit some laboratories of the collaboration for discussions and characterisation measurements is also mandatory.

This moderate support will give access to other resources provided by the other members of the collaboration and allow us to apply to other national and international programs.

1] A. G. Weisenberger, E. L. Bradly, S. Majewski and M. S. Saha, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci, 45 (1998) 1743-1749

2] R. Pani, R. Pellegrini, A. Soluri, G. De Vincentis, R. Scafe and A. Pergola, NIM A409 (1998) 524-528

3] L. H. Barone, K. Blazek, D. Bollini, A. Del Guerra, F. de Notaristefani, G. D. Vincentis, G. di Domenico, M. Galli, M. Giganti, P. Mali, R. Pani, R. Pellegrini, A. Pergola, A. Piffanelli, F. Scopinario, A. Volturi and F. Vittori, NIM, A360(1995)302-306

4] D. Bouttet, Méchanisme de fluorescence et de scintillation dand des cristaux inorganiques lourds dopés aux inons de Ce3+ et Pr 3+, Thèse, Univ. Claude Bernard, Lyon, 1995.

DUJARDIN C., PEDRINI C., BOUTTET, VERWEIJ J.W.M., PETROSYAN A., BELSKY ANDREI, VASILIEV

Fluorescence and scintillation properties of cerium-doped lutetium orthoaluminate

Delft University Press, The Netherlands, coll. Proc. Int.Conf.on Inorganic Scintil. &

Applicat., 1996, 336-339.

5] Progress and prospects in the development of new scintillators for future high energy experiments, P. Lecoq, M. Schussler and M. Schneegans. Nucl. Instr. Meth., A315(1992) 337-343

6] Performance study of a 3D smal animal PET scanner based on BaF2 crystals and a photosensitive wire chamber, P. Bruyndonckx, Liu Xuan, S. Tavernier and Zhang Shuping, Nucl. Instr. Meth., A392 (1997) 407-413

7] Tanaka et al., Nucl. Instr. Meth., A404 (1998) 283

8] C. Dujardin, C. pedrini, D. Bouttet, J. W. M. Verweij, A. G. Petrosian, A. Belski, A. Vasilel’ev, E.I. Zinin, P. Martin, Fluorescence and Scintilation properties of Cerium doped Lutetium ortoaluminate. Proceedings of SCINT'95, Aug 28 -Sept 1, 1995, Delft, The Netherlands. Delft University Press.

9] List of 13 companies with which we have contact.

Bogoroditsk Plant, Russia

Karl Korth, Germany

Hitachi Chemical, Japan

Mitsui Mining and Melting NK&k, Japan

Crytur, Czech Republik

Optovac, USA

Crismatec, France

SIC, Shanghai, China

Le Verre Fluoré, France

CTI, (USA)

Scionix, The Netherlands

Siemens AG, Germany

LETI, France

- Publications

- Lens letter of intent

- Letter of Magistretti

- ISTC project # 1489: Preparation of a project for development of detector production technology for new generation nuclear medicine instrumentation

E.Auffray, I.Dafinei, P.Lecoq, M.Schneegans in Scintillator and Phosphor Materials, Proceedings of MRS Spring

Meeting, April 4-8, 1994, San Francisco, USA, edited by M.J.Weber et al.,

I.Dafinei, E.Auffray, P.Lecoq, M.Schneegans, dans Scintillator and Phosphor Materials, Proceedings of MRS Spring

Meeting, April 4-8, 1994, San Francisco, USA, edited by M.J.Weber et al., CMS TN/94-317,

I.Dafinei, E.Auffray, P.Lecoq, M.Schneegans, in Scintillator and Phosphor Materials, Proceedings of MRS Spring

Meeting, April 4-8, 1994, San Francisco, USA, edited by M.J.Weber et al.,

E.Auffray et al, Preprint CERN PPE/94112, CMS TN/94-235, and Scintillator and Phosphor Materials, Proceedings

of MRS Spring Meeting, April 4-8, 1994, San Francisco, USA, edited by M.J.Weber et al.,

T.Beckers et al, Proc. of 5th Intern. Conference on Calorimetry in High Energy Physics, Upton, NY,USA25, Sept 1994

E. Auffray et al, Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Advanced Technology and Particle Physics,

October 94, Villa Olmo, Como, Italy. CMS TN/94-271.

T.Beckers et al, Proceedings of Beijing Calorimetry Symposium, October 94, Beijing, China, CMS TN/95-007

P.Lecoq et al., NIM, A 365(1995) 291-298. Preprint CERN-PPE/94-225, CMS TN/94-308.

The Crystal Clear Collaboration, CERN/DRDC/94-53, RD-18/Status Report, 26 Jan.95

E.Auffray et al, Preprint CERN-PPE/95-176 (Oct 95), CMS TN/95-185. NIM A 378 (1996) 171.

The Crystal Clear Collaboration, CERN/DRDC/96-19, RD-18/Status Report, 20 Feb. 96

J.P.Peigneux et al, CMS Collab., Preprint CERN-PPE-95-197 (Dec 95). NIM A 378 (1996) 410.

T.Beckers et al, the Crystal Clear Collaboration, Proceedings of the 4th international conference on advanced

technology and particle physics, ICATPP4, Como, Italy, 3-7 Oct 94, Nucl.Phys.B, Proc Suppl.:44 (1995), 57-62.

The Crystal Clear Collaboration, Preprint CERN-PPE/96-064, NIM A 383 (1996) 367.

Extensive studies on CeF3 crystals, a good candidate for em calorimetry at future accelerators,

The Crystal Clear Collaboration, Preprint CERN-PPE/96-035, NIM A 380 (1996) 524.

M. Schneegans, presented at: 7e Journées d'Etudes Saturne, Ramatuelle, 29 Jan-2 Fev 1996, Proceedings of the Workshop and LAPP-EXP-96-08

Caractéristiques et performances de nouveaux cristaux scintillants pour la calorimétrie aux futurs accélérateurs

M. Schneegans, presented at: 5e Atelier pluridisciplinaire de la SIMEM: la détection des rayonnements, les

nouvelles technologies, les nouveaux materiaux, ISMRA, Caen, 15-16 Fév 1996

G.Alexeev et al, CMS Collaboration, Preprint CERN-PPE-96-148 (Jul 96), NIM A 385 (1997) 425

M. Schneegans, presented at: 6th topical seminar on experimental apparatus and astrophysics, San Miniato, Tuscany, 21-24 May, 1996. Preprint LAPP-EXP-96.15 and Nucl.Phys.B (proc.Suppl.) 54B (1997) 3-13.

E.Auffray et al, CMS Collaboration, Preprint CERN-EP/98-20 , CMS TN/97-099, NIM A: 412 (1998) 223

E. Auffray, E.Baguer-Batalla, P. Lecoq, S. Paoletti, M. Schneegans

Proceedings of International Conference on Inorganic Scintillators and their Applications, Shanghai,China, Sept. 97

Progress in the radiation hardness of PWO scintillators for the CMS calorimeter.

E.Auffray, P.Lecoq, S.Paoletti, M.Schneegans, P.Sempere, E,Vigo

Proceedings of the International Workshop on Tungstate Crystals, Roma, October1998

E.Auffray, M.Lebeau, P.Lecoq, S.Paoletti, M.Schneegans, P.Sempere, E,Vigo

Proceedings of the International Workshop on Tungstate Crystals, Roma, October1998

A.Annenkov, E.Auffray, G.Davies, M.Korjic, P.Lecoq, R.Marcos, M.Schneegans, P.Sempere,

Proceedings of the International Conference on scintillating crystals, Moscow, August 1999.

Scintillator and Phosphor materials

M. J. Weber, P. Lecoq, R. C. Ruchti, C. Woody, W. M. Yen, R. Zhu

Proceedings of MRS spring meeting'94, San Francisco April, 5-10, 1994, Materials Research Society Symposium proceedings, Volume 348, 1994, 565 pages

A search for scintillation in orthorhombic lead fluoride

D. F. Anderson, J. A. Kierstead, P. Lecoq, S. Stoll, C. L. Woody

Nucl. Instrum. Meth. Phys. Res. A342 (1994) 473-476

Fast fluorescence and scintillation of Pr-doped Yttrium Aluminium Perovskite.

C. Pedrini, D. Bouttet, C. Dujardin, B. Moine, I. Dafinei, P. Lecoq, M. Koselja, K. Blazek

optical materials 3(1994) 81-88

"Crystal Clear Collaboration" Status Report From. R&D for Study of new fast and radiation hard scintillators for calorimetry at LHC: RD-18.

The Crystal Clear Collaboration. P. Lecoq, E. Auffray..

CERN/DRDC/, RD-18/Status Report, 14 september 1994.

Test results of a CeF3 crystal matrix.

P. Depasse, H. El Mamouni, J. Fay, M. Goyot, B. Ille, P. Lebrun, J. P. Martin, G. Maurelli, M. Reynaud, P. Sahne, J. P. Walder, M. Chipaux, I. Soric, H. Hillemanns, T. Kirn, D. Schmitz, J. Schwenke, V. Commichau,
R. Raghavan, M. Mattioli, L. Pacciani, S. Pirro, E. Auffray, I. Dafinei, U. Dydak, P. Lecoq, L. Djambazov, M. Felcini, H. Hofer, P. Lecomte, I. Melnikov, F. Nessi-Tedaldi, D. Ren, U. Rˆser, G. Viertel, H. P. von Gunten, S. Waldmeier-Wicki

Proceedings on Calorimetry in High Energy Physics, (Brookhaven94), Ed. H. A. Gordon, D. Rueger, World Scientific presented by Pierre Lecomte

Fluorescence & scintillation properties of LuAlO3:Ce crystal

J.A. Mares, M. Nikl, J. Chval, I. Dafinei, P. Lecoq, J. Kvapil.

Chem. Phys. Letters 241 (1995) 311-316

Lead Tungstate production in FSU, Visit report, dec 11-21, 19944

M. Lebeau, P. Lecoq, R. W. Sparrov.

CMS TN/95-008

A distributed control and data base system for the production of high quality crystals.

M. Lebeau, P. Lecoq, J.P. Vialle

CMS TN/95-024

Decay kinetic of Ce3+ ions under g and KrF excimer laser excitation in CeF3 single crystals

M. Nikl, J.A. Mares, M. Dusek, P. Lecoq, I. Dafinei, E. Auffray, G.P. Pazzi, P. Fabeni, J. Jindra, Z. Skoda.

J. Phys. Condens. Matter 7 (1995) 6355-6364.

Fast Luminescence of undoped PbWO₄ crystal

A.N. Belsky, V.V. Mikhailin, A.N. Vasil'ev, I. Dafinei, P. Lecoq, C. Pedrini, P. Chevalier, P. Dhez, P. Martin

Chem. Phys. Letters 243 (1995) 552-558CMS TN/ 95-073

Ce Doped Hafniate Scintillating Glasses: Thermally Stimulated Luminescence and Photoluminescence.

M. Martini, F. Meinardi, A. Vedda, I. Dafinei, P. Lecoq, M. Nikl

Proceeding of VIII internationnal on radiation effects in insulator.

Luminescence and Scintillation of PbWO4 Single Crystals

M. Nikl, K. Polak, K. Nitsch, E. Mihokova, P. Lecoq, I. Dafinei, P. Reiche, R. Uecker, O. Jarolimek.

Proceedings of the Int. Conf. on Inorganic Scintillators and their Applications (SCINT95, Delft. The Netherlands, August 28 - September1, 1995), Ed. P. Derenbos, C. W. E. van Eijk, (1995), 257-262

Scintillation Characteristics and Radiation Hardness of PWO Scintillators to be used at the CMS Electromagnetic Calorimeter at CERN.

E. Auffray, I. Dafinei, F. Gautheron, O. Lafond-Puyet, P. Lecoq, M. Schneegans

Proceedings of the Int. Conf. on Inorganic Scintillators and their Applications (SCINT95, Delft. The Netherlands, August 28 - September1, 1995), Ed. P. Derenbos, C. W. E. van Eijk, (1995), 282-285

CMS TN/95-123

The lead tungstate calorimeter of the CMS Experiment at LHC

P. Lecoq

To be published in of Proceedings SCINT95 Conference on Inorganic Scintillators Delft. 28 august-1 September 1995

Slow components in the photoluminescence and scintillation decays of PbWO4 single crystals.

M. Nikl, K. Nitsch, K. Polak, E. Auffray, I. Dafinei,P. Lecoq, P. Reiche, R. Uecker.

December 6, 1995; CMS TN/95-127.

Slow components in the photoluminescence and scintillation decays of PbWO4 single crystals.

M. Nikl, K. Nitsch, K. Polak, E. Auffray, I. Dafinei,P. Lecoq, P. Reiche, R. Uecker.

Physt. Stat. sol. B195 (1996)311

Influence of stoichiometry on the optical properties of lead tungstate crystals.

A.N. Belsky, S.M. Klimov, V.V. Mikhailin, A.N. Vasil'ev, E. Auffray, P. Lecoq, C. Pedrini, M.V. Korzhik, A.N. Annenkov, P. Martin, P. Chevalier, J. C. Krupa

Moscow 1997

Chemical Physics Letters 277(1997) 65-70

Radiation damage mechanism in PbWO4 crystal and radiation hardness quality control of PWO scintillators for CMSE. Auffray, S. Baccaro, B. Borgia, F. Cavallari, A. Cecilia, I. Dafinei, M. Diemoz, P. Lecoq, E. Longo, M. Montecchi, G. Organtini, S. Salvatori

CMS Note 1997/038

Trap Levels in PbWO4 Crystals: Correlation with scintillation Decay M. Martini, G. Spinolo, A. Vedda, M. Nikl, K. Nitsch, V. Hamplova, P. Fabeni, G. P. Pazzi, I. Dafinei, P. Lecoq Chemical Physics Letters 260 (1996) 418-422

Optical and EPR Study of Point Defects in PbWO4 Single Crystals

M. Nikl, J. Rosa, K. Nitsch, H.R. Asatryan, S. Baccaro, A. Cecilia, M. Montecchi, B. Borgia. I. Dafinei, M. Diemoz, P. Lecoq

Proc. of ICDM96, JUly 15-19, 1996, Wake Forest University Winston Salem, NC, USA

Thermally Stimulated Luminescence of PbWO4 Crystals

M. Martini, E. Rosetta, G. Spinolo, A. Vedda, M. Nikl, K. Nitsch, I. Dafinei, P. Lecoq

ICL'96 - August 18-23, 1996, Czech Republic, accepted 23 August 1996 - Journal of Luminescence 72-74 (1997) 689-690

Time-resolved luminescence and induced absorption in PbWO4

D. Millers, S. Chernov, L. Grigorjeva, A. Popov, E. Auffray, I. Dafinei, P. Lecoq, M. Schneegans

ICL'96 - August 18-23, 1996, Czech Republic, accepted 23 August 1996 - Journal of Luminescence 72-74 (1997) 693-695

Status of PWO Crystals

P. Lecoq

ECAL review by LHCC referees, October 29, 1996

Radiation damage kinetics in PWO crystals

A. Annenkov, E. Auffray, A. Fedorov, S. Gninenko, N. Golubev, M. Korshik, P. Lecoq, V. Ligun, A, Lobko, O. Missevitch, J.P. Peigneux, Yu.D. Prokoskin, A. Simgovski

CMS Notes 1997/009

The temperature dependence os scintillation parameters in PbWO4

D. Millers, L. Grigorjeva, S. Chernov, A. Popov, P. Lecoq, E. Auffray

Institute of Solid State Physics, University of Latvia and CERN Division PPE

Improvement of several properties of lead tungstate crystals with different doping ions

E. Auffray, P. Lecoq, M. Korzhik, A. Annenkov, O. Jarolimek, M. Nikl, S. Baccaro, A. Cecilia, M. Diemoz, I. Dafinei CMS Note 97/54

NIM A 402(1998) 75-84

The Challenge of new scintillator development for High Energy Physics

P. Lecoq

Invited talk International Conference on Scintillators and their applications, SCINT97, september 97, Shangai, China

Radiation resistance of crystal scintillators

P. Lecoq

presented at the ECFA workshop on the LHC, Aachen 4-9 Oct. 1990

High Resolution Electromagnetic Calorimeters in CMS

J. L. Faure, D. Ferrere, B. Ille, M. Lebeau, P. Lecoq, J. M. Le Goff, M. Schneegans,

C. Seez, T. S. Virdee

CMS Lead Tungstate ECAL: Test beam Results 95

CMS ECAL group: E. Auffray, P. Lecoq, ++(CMS ECAL group)

report to the CMS Referees, Feb. 19 1996

Development of Lead Tungstate Crystals for High Performance Calorimetry

P. Lecoq

Frascatti June 1996

Slow Components and afterglow in PWO Crystal Scintillations

A. N. Annenkov, E. Auffray, A. E. Borisevich, G. Yu. Drobishev, A. A. Fedorov, O. V. Kondratiev, M. V. Korzhik, P. Lecoq, V. D. Ligun, O. V. Missevitch, V. B. Pavlenko, J. P. Peigneux, Yu. D. Prokoshkin, A. v. Singovski, R. F. Zouevski

Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research, NIM A 403(1998) 302-312

X-Ray Synchrotron Radiation in the study of Radiation Hardness of PbWO4

A. N. Belsky, S. M. Klimov, V. V. Mikhailin, A. N. Vasil'ev, C. Pedrini, E. Auffray, P. Lecoq, M. V. Korzhik, P. Chevallier, P. Dhez, E. I. Zinin

presented in SCINT97,22-25 Sep. 1997, China

Systematic Study of the Short-term Instability of PbWO4 Scintillator Parameters under Irradiation

A. N. Annenkov, E. Auffray, R. Chipaux, G. Yu. Drobychev, A. A. Fedorov, M. Geleoc, N. A. Golubev, M. V. Korzhik, P. Lecoq, A. A. Lednev, A. B. Ligun, O. V. Missevitch, V. B. Pavlenko, J. P. Peigneux, A. V. Singovski

CMS Notes 1997/55

Radiation Measurements

vol 29 N∫1, p27-38 1998

Influence of La3+ -doping on decay kinetics and Thermoluminescence Characteristics of PbWO4 single Crystals

M. Nikl, K. Nitsch, P. Bohacek, E. Mihokova, M. Martini, A. Vedda, S. Croci, G. P. Pazzi, P. Fabeni, S. Baccaro, B. Borgia, I. Dafinei, M. Diemoz, G. Organtini, E. Auffray, P. Lecoq, M. Kobayashi, M. Ishii, Y. Usukipresented in SCINT97,22-25 Sep. 1997, China

Appl. Phys. Lett. 71 (26), 29 december 1997

Review of progress on Lead Tungstate crystals for the CMS electromagnetic calorimeter

P. Lecoq

Invited talk at the Internal Conference on Calorimetry CALOR 97, nov. 97

Luminescence and scintillation decay kinetics of PbWO4 single crystals

M. Nikl, P. Bohacek, P. Nitsch, E. Mihokova, K. Polak, M. Martini, A. Vedda, S. Croci, G. P. Pazzi, P. Fabeni, S. Baccaro, B. Borgia, I. Dafinei, M. Diemoz, G. Organtini, E. Auffray, P. Lecoq, M. Kobayashi, M. Ishii, Y. Usuki, V. Murk, O. Jarolimek

Proceedings of the Int. Conf. on Inorganic Scintillators and their Applications (SCINT97,Shanghai, P.R. China, September 22-25, 1997), Ed. Yin Zhiven, LiPeijun, Feng Xiqi, Xue Zhilin

Shanghai Institute of Ceramics Chinese Academy of Sciences

Progress in R&D of the PbWO4 crystals for CMS ECAL

A. N. Annenkov, M. V. Korzhik, V. L. Kostylev, P. Lecoq, V. D. Ligoun Proceedings of the Int. Conf. on Inorganic Scintillators and their Applications (SCINT97,Shanghai, P.R. China, September 22-25, 1997), Ed. Yin Zhiven, LiPeijun, Feng Xiqi, Xue Zhilin

Shanghai Institute of Ceramics Chinese Academy of Sciences

On the nature of PbWO4 blue emission

A. N. Belsky, S. M. Klimov, V. V Mikhailin, C. Pedrini, M. V. Korzhik, E. Auffray, P. Lecoq Proceedings of the Int. Conf. on Inorganic Scintillators and their Applications (SCINT97,Shanghai, P.R. China, September 22-25, 1997), Ed. Yin Zhiven, LiPeijun, Feng Xiqi, Xue Zhilin

Shanghai Institute of Ceramics Chinese Academy of Sciences

Certifying Procedures for Lead Tungstate Crystals Parameters During the mass production for CMS ECAL

E. Auffray, R. Chipaux, G. Yu. Drobychev, G. Dromby, A. A. Feodorov, M. Geoloc, O. V. Kondratiev, M. V. Korzhik, P. Lecoq, P. Letournel, A. R. Lopatik, O. V. Missevitch, A. Oriboni, A. V. Oskine, B. M. Panov, J. P. Peigneux, M. Schneegans, A. Singovski, R. F. Zouevski

Proceedings of IEEF 98 Toronto

Specifications for lead tungstate crystals preproduction

E. Auffray, M. Lebeau, P. Lecoq, M. Schneegans

CMS Note 98/038

LEAD TUNGSTATE SCINTILLATOR

A. N. Annenkov, E. Auffray, P. Lecoq, O. Misevitch, J. P. Peigneux, A. Fe? , Mirb?

Comparison of different irradiation procedures for recently optimized russian PbWO4 crystals

E. Auffray, P. Lecoq, P. Sempere-Roldan, J. P. Peigneux, A. Singovski, K. Deiters, D. Renker

CMS Note 1998/069

Suppression of the radiation damage in lead tungstate scintillation crystal

A. Annenkov, E. Auffray, A. Borisevich, M. Korzhik, P. Lecoq, V. Ligun

Nuclear Instruments and Methods A 426 (1999) 486-490

On the origin of the transmission damage in lead Tungstate crystals under irradiation

A. Annenkov, E. Auffray, M. Korzhik, P. Lecoq, J.P. Peigneux

CMS Note 1998/041

Electron centers in lead tungstate crystals

A.E. Borisevich, P. Lecoq, O.V. Kondratiev, M.V. Korzhik ++...

Phys.stat.sol.

Lead tungstate Scintillator for high Energy physics applications

A. N. Annekov, M. Korzhik, P. Lecoq

Proceedings of IEEE Toronto Nov 98

Large scale production of Lead Tungstate crystals in Russia

P. Lecoq

Proceedings of the PWO workshop, 12-14 October 1998, Rome, Italy

New Scintillating Crystals for Medical Imaging

P. Lecoq

Proceedings of Calo99 Lisbonne

Radiation Damage Processes In Wide-Gap Scintillating Crystals. New Scintillation Materials.

M. Nikl, P. Bohacek, E. Mihokova, S.Baccaro, A. Vedda, M. Diemoz, E. Longo, M. Kobayashi, E. Auffray and P. Lecoq Como 98, Proceedings in Nucl. Physics B

Thermo stimulated Luminescence and Shallow Electron Centers in Lead Tungstate Crystals

M. Korzhik, O. Kondratiev, A. Borisevich, P. Lecoq, E. Auffray

Integrated Data Management and Enterprise Models

R. McClatchey, Z. Kovacs, T. Solomonides,J.M, Le Goff, P. Lecoq, S. Murray, J.P. Vialle

EMRPS'99

Decay Kinetics and Thermoluminescence of PbWO4:La3+

M. Nikl, P. Bohacek, K. Nitsch, E. Mihokova, M. Martini, A. Vedda, S. Croci, G.P. Pazzi, P. Fabeni, S. Baccaro, B. Borgia, I. Dafinei, M. Diemoz, G. Organtini, E. Auffray, P. Lecoq, M. Kobayashi, M. Ishii, Y. Usuki Appl. Phys. Lett. 71 (26), 29 December 1997

American Institute of Physics

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R.†Chipaux, J.-L.†Faure, P.†Rebourgeard, G.†Dauphin, J.†Safieh,
ìBehaviour of CeF3 scintillator in a LHC-like environmentî,
Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research, A345†(1994)†440-444.

R. Chipaux,
ìLight collection in the CMS lead tungstate crystals : relation between monitoring and calibration variationsî,
presented at SCINT'99, Moscow, 1999.